Religion, Civil Society, Democracy, and the Rule of Law
In Cambodia
By Heng Monychenda
Director, Buddhism for development
Battambang, Cambodia
Except the word religion, I think the Khmer people are feeling alien to the word civil society, democracy, and the rule of law, which are being communicated by the media in Cambodia. Although you may hear Cambodians speak these words, please do not assume that we fully understand the meaning and the context of the words. These words, however, in Cambodia are quite new and constructed to translate from English after UNTAC arrived in Cambodia.
The word democracy somehow is familiar to Cambodians. From 1970 to 1975 we lived in a military regime of the General Lon Nol in the name of Khmer Republic which was fully back by the United States, a well developed democratic country. From 1975 to 1978 we were in the Communism of Pol Pot in the name of Democratic Kampuchea which was fully fathered by the People Republic of China. In 1979 the Khmer Rouge was expelled and the People Republic of Kampuchea was established whose Vietnam and USSR sponsored. In 1993 the intervention of UNTAC was said to bring democracy into Cambodia.
The contradiction among the word, its implementation and the supporters has made us difficult to understand the concepts and its advantages in their daily life. Therefore, the democratization,
To understand why democracy, civil society, and the rule of law still be the matter of dilemma among Cambodians, I would like to invite you to look at Cambodian political culture, which forms and governs political behavior in current Cambodian society, and then we will look for ideas to help upgrading the present condition of democracy, civil society, and the rule of law.
Definition and scope
Political culture assumes that the attitudes, sentiments, values, beliefs, and cognitions that familiarize and govern political behavior in any society are not just random congeries but represent coherent patterns which fit together and are mutually reinforcing.[1] It also assumes that each individual should learn and consolidate into his own personality the knowledge and feelings about the politics of his people and his community. Each generation inherited its politics from the previous one, each reacts against that process to finds its own politics. This long process follows the laws that govern the development of personality of each individual and the culture of a society.[2]
The main influence of Cambodian political culture has been Buddhism. Buddhism is predominant in Cambodia. The great majority of the people of Cambodia adheres to the tradition of Theravada Buddhism and had arrived at their beliefs through many centuries of interaction of ideas. Hence, the Buddhist values inform and inspire basic social, political, economic, and cultural patterns of life for the individual, family, village, and nation of the countries. From birth to death Cambodian life has been linked to Buddhist teachings, rituals, norms, and traditions. There is a profound sense in which to be a Cambodian is to be Buddhist. [3]
Basic Teaching
However, Theravada Buddhism as practiced in Cambodia is mixing with Mahayana Buddhism which had influence in the 10-11th century, Brahmanism since 3rd century, and animism of the indigenous people. Buddha, in genuine Buddhism, is not God, but Cambodians today pray to the Buddha’s statue for luck, and if they do not receive it they complain that “Preah min chouy” (The Lord did not help). This moment of prayer is a combination of Theravada (Buddha statue), Mahayana (living Buddha) and Brahmanism (God)[4], and animism (Neak Ta[5]). In Buddhism, no belief must be taken on faith, such as a belief in supreme beings. No one should oblige someone to believe something without investigating, experiencing, and deciding by him/herself.[6]
Each individual is responsible for his/her own life and destiny, which is based on his/her Karma/action, the most distinctive teaching of Buddhism. Karma in the past (previous life up to a moment ago), results in the existence of today and this moment. The results (vipaka) today formulate as actual karma, which produces fruits as quickly as a minute into the future. Each karmic action interacts with another to create social karma which can be creative or destructive according to the attitude of each individual towards the Dharma.[7] We can say that the world as it exists today is a combination of various waves of karma. The combination of these waves creates a unique culture at a unique time, and is inherited by the next generation.
Nirvana _ freedom from greed, hatred, and delusion _ is the ultimate goal for all Buddhists. Each individual can attain this goal only by following the Noble Eightfold Path: proper understanding, thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. This requires each Buddhist to study, understand, and practice by her/ himself under the guidance of the Buddha and the monks. By practicing the Noble Eightfold Path (also called Dharmaseri (Dharma liberty), and someone who lives in Dharmaseri is called puggalaseri (a liberty/free person).[8]each individual is committing to self-development, which is divided into four stages:
1. physical development (kayabhavana) which requires the sufficiency of basic needs for human development
2. moral development (sila bhavana) which requires each practitioner to abide by religious and social rule, law, and regulation
3. mental/emotional development (cittabhavana) which requires each practitioner to control his/her own emotion and develop his/her mind to be free of greed, hatred, and delusion
4. wisdom development (pannabhavana) requires each practitioner to fully develop his/her own wisdom _ to see things as it is
During his time, the Buddha introduced a new system of ruling to the monks by which they were obliged to live. It was in complete contradiction to the ruling systems in India, which were mainly autocratic. In his model, Dhammadhippateyya, decision making is be made by member consensus or by a majority vote if consensus is not achievable. For example, in the ordination of a monk, the candidate seeks approval from the chief of monks’ community. The chief appoints two mentors to check background of the candidate. After investigating, the two mentors propose verbally three times to the 21-member assembly of monks. If there is no objection, all of them should be quiet. If there is objection, one should speak up and the process must be redone until consensus is achieved.
In his ideal community the Buddha encouraged and obliged the monks to live together as communities (Sangha). Monastery life is set up as a ruling system in which leaders are chosen by their qualities and with the approval of the community of monks. Each member of the monk-community must participate in the stability of rule of law of the monastery, i.e. participating every two weeks in a ceremony call Patimokha Review in the temple to review compliance of the law. In the ceremony, each monk must inform the community if he cannot comply with the rules for further action by the community. Criticism is allowed in a formal setting, particularly during the meeting every two weeks, and at the end of the three-month Retreat. Someone who sees another monk commit a mistake but does not present to the community, is considered to be wrong (apatti).
Conflict is a natural phenomenon in Buddhist community. Buddhism sees change (Anicca) as a permanent phenomenon. Conflict even occurred between the Buddha and his followers. Conflict resolution is made by the presence of all conflicting parties, the judge, and the law (viniya). Freedom to express truth in the formal meeting is encouraged for everyone. Conflict resolution must be made non-violently and by persuasion.
The Buddha also involved in managing conflicts of the non-religious community (lay people). However, his involvement meant to save the lives and property of the people rather than to increase or decrease the power of the conflicting parties. The Buddha prohibits monks from taking side in politics, and getting involved in power seeking of the lay people. Nevertheless, Buddhist scriptures allow the monks to address the kinds of qualities that make good leaders and bad leaders and codes of conducts for leaders at various levels.
Misunderstanding the Teaching
These teachings of democratic values delivered by the Buddha and monks have helped erected Cambodian society towards more liberal, and influenced Cambodian elites since the Angkor Thom period. A concrete example is demonstrated at Bayon Temple. In this glorious temple, the sculptures are more people oriented or people centered while at Angkor Watt are more leader centered. At Bayon, you will see the daily life of the people around the wall, where at Angkor Watt you will see only the glory of the elite. Jayavarman VII deeply understood the concepts of democracy through Mahayana Buddhism. 53 heads of Brahma, rather than one head, is another prove of decentralization influenced by Buddhism.
However, these teachings lost somewhere or could not reach in a good way to villagers and elites in Cambodia in recent century, which may be caused by wars, foreign occupation, gaps of communication, and inappropriate study of Buddhism, and the influence of Hinduism.
· The descendant of Jayavarman VII somehow destroyed the democratic and decentralization concepts of the king by the influence of Brahmanism (Hinduism) which supported the king-centered concept.
· Cambodia has been between the hammer, Vietnam, and the Tronop, Thailand since 14th century. Many wars with the two countries have made Cambodia weak and looking for survival. Therefore, authoritarianism had been the only way to keep Cambodia in existence.
· The ancient language of Pàlì is traditionally used during the ceremonies of ordaining monks, appointment, decision-making, and even preaching. Unfortunately, most of the meaning is lost because the daily spoken language is Cambodian, not Pali. The gaps of communication block most parts democratic values, civil society concepts, and the practice of rule of law in Buddhism to the people.
· Low education of monks contributing to the decadence of democratic value and the rule of law practice among villagers and elites. i.e. Cambodian difference to authority, for example, is sometimes explained by noting that someone of high status performed good deeds in his previous lives. Someone who is subordinate, on the other hand, by the same rationale, has less good karma and hence is duty-bound to respect his superior.[9] Cambodian commoners believed that those who were born as kings, princes and princesses, and high class were descended from heaven.[10] Sometimes people even call the king ‘Bodhisattva’ (future-Buddha). Therefore, to be loyal to the king is similar to being loyal to the Buddha. This common perception led Cambodians to believe that the king, as well as the high leaders, controls the fate of all. Within this context, authoritarianism is highly likely to exist because people have given full trust and power to their leader.
Another example: at the end of his life, one of his followers was very concerned that Buddhism would be finished when the Buddha passed away. The Buddha confirmed that the future of Buddhism depended on the four assemblies, namely monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen. In other words, lay people were to have a say in how Buddhism would be managed. In fact lay participation in the affairs of the temples is limited to the role of supporter and does not reflect the original intention of the Buddha. If public participation in governance were promoted, Buddhism would serve as a model for public participation in governing the country.
The above-mentioned examples, in my points of view, are some factors add to the lower level of trust in political democracy in Cambodia. Democratic system, are mainly known in the capital cities and big towns among highly educated people. In the countryside people are much more familiar with authoritarian values. Therefore, public participation in the democratic movement for the last decades has had little chance to progress.
However, looking only at political culture is just one of many angles in understanding Khmer society, democracy, and the rule of law. French colonization, the emergence of the cold war in which Cambodia became a pawn of the world super powers, geopolitics, leadership, socioeconomic equality, and the stability of the country are different angles that must not overlooked. For example, the democratic system envisioned by the Buddha is based on the assumption that the basic physical needs of the monks were met. This condition is met for the monks who do not need to worry about food, but the lay people have to struggle to meet their basic needs. According to many studies, high income has high correlation with sustain democracy.[11] With all these factors combined, it is not surprising that in Cambodia democracy does not well develop, civil society does not appropriately formed, the rule of law cannot prevail, and Buddhism cannot conform its duties well enough.
Towards A Hope Society
Ladies and Gentlemen!
Let me conclude my speech by reordering the title given by the organizer with this illustration, which I would call the Trinity of Cambodian Society: more socially engagement of Buddhism, proper democratization, and appropriate rule of law, will prosper Cambodian society.
Today, everyone talk about the auspicious of the new millennium and hope that the year 2000s would bring prosperity to Cambodia. I would say that the expectation is not far from reach if we allow Buddhism[12], democracy, and the rule of law to take action in our society:
· Buddhist monks must at least teach more practical tolerance (khanti), participation in decision-making and governing (Samaggi) to their people. Monks should play a big role in rebuilding trust among Cambodians, which has been completely stolen during Communist regime and wars, and help solving conflict peacefully.
· Democracy seems to be an influential wave for Cambodian new way of life. Democratization should be patient in this fragile moment of peace, and should look around to other factors such as economic development. Democracy needs critics; therefore the role of media is vital and must be strengthened and supported by democratic practitioners. Democratic consolidation in Cambodia has a long road to go but reachable if Buddhist teachings and the rule of law are taken into account.
· In this particular moment the application of rule of law in Cambodia is so important in the reconstruction of order in the country. However, we have to consider of its environment: the background of the law, its goal goal, producer, time, individual attitude, social culture and environment, and the appropriateness of the application.
"Step by Step towards Self-reliance".
ENDNOTES
[1] Political Culture and Political Development, 1972, edited by Lucian W. Pye and Sidney Verba, Princeton University Press. Pp. 7-8
[2] Ibid.7-8
[3] Clark D. Neher, Politics in Southeast Asia, Schenkman Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 90-91
[4] In Hindu, Buddha is considered on of Shiva reincarnation.
[5] Powerful spirit represented by some objects or sculpture
[6] be not let by report, tradition, the authority of texts, mere logic, inference, considering appearances, the agreement with a considered and approved theory, seeming possibilities, and by the idea, “This is my teacher”. Kalamasutta, Anguttaranikaya, Tikanipata
[7] The concept of trinity of Buddha (individual), the Dharma (standard measure), and Sangha (community)
[8] Aggavisanasuttanidesa, khuddikanikaya. Culanidesa
[9] Clark D. Neher, Politics in Southeast Asia, Schenkman Publishing Company, Inc. p. 91
[10] Khmer Buddhism and Politics from 1954-1984, Yang Sam, Khmer Studies Institute, 1987
[11] What Makes Democracies Endure in Consolidating the Third Wave Democracy, pp. 295-2-312, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
[12] I say Budhism; of course it means for Buddhists, Christianity for Christians, and Islam for Muslims, and because most of Cambodians are Buddhists.
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